CHAPTER 8

Classes

Class declarations define new reference types and describe how they are implemented (§8.1).

A nested class is any class whose declaration occurs within the body of another class or interface. A top level class is a class that is not a nested class.

This chapter discusses the common semantics of all classes-top level (§7.6) and nested (including member classes (§8.5, §9.5), local classes (§14.3) and anonymous classes (§15.9.5)). Details that are specific to particular kinds of classes are discussed in the sections dedicated to these constructs.

A named class may be declared abstract (§8.1.1.1) and must be declared abstract if it is incompletely implemented; such a class cannot be instantiated, but can be extended by subclasses. A class may be declared final (§8.1.1.2), in which case it cannot have subclasses. If a class is declared public, then it can be referred to from other packages.

Each class except Object is an extension of (that is, a subclass of) a single existing class (§8.1.3) and may implement interfaces (§8.1.4).

The body of a class declares members (fields and methods and nested classes and interfaces), instance and static initializers, and constructors (§8.1.5). The scope (§6.3) of a member (§8.2) is the entire declaration of the class to which the member belongs. Field, method, member class, member interface, and constructor declarations may include the access modifiers (§6.6) public, protected, or private. The members of a class include both declared and inherited members (§8.2). Newly declared fields can hide fields declared in a superclass or superinterface. Newly declared class members and interface members can hide class or interface members declared in a superclass or superinterface. Newly declared methods can hide, implement, or override methods declared in a superclass or superinterface.

Field declarations (§8.3) describe class variables, which are incarnated once, and instance variables, which are freshly incarnated for each instance of the class. A field may be declared final (§8.3.1.2), in which case it can be assigned to only once. Any field declaration may include an initializer.

Member class declarations (§8.5) describe nested classes that are members of the surrounding class. Member classes may be static, in which case they have no access to the instance variables of the surrounding class; or they may be inner classes (§8.1.2).

Member interface declarations (§8.5) describe nested interfaces that are members of the surrounding class.

Method declarations (§8.4) describe code that may be invoked by method invocation expressions (§15.12). A class method is invoked relative to the class type; an instance method is invoked with respect to some particular object that is an instance of the class type. A method whose declaration does not indicate how it is implemented must be declared abstract. A method may be declared final (§8.4.3.3), in which case it cannot be hidden or overridden. A method may be implemented by platform-dependent native code (§8.4.3.4). A synchronized method (§8.4.3.6) automatically locks an object before executing its body and automatically unlocks the object on return, as if by use of a synchronized statement (§14.18), thus allowing its activities to be synchronized with those of other threads (§17).

Method names may be overloaded (§8.4.7).

Instance initializers (§8.6) are blocks of executable code that may be used to help initialize an instance when it is created (§15.9).

Static initializers (§8.7) are blocks of executable code that may be used to help initialize a class when it is first loaded (§12.4).

Constructors (§8.8) are similar to methods, but cannot be invoked directly by a method call; they are used to initialize new class instances. Like methods, they may be overloaded (§8.8.6).

8.1 Class Declaration

ClassDeclaration:
	ClassModifiersopt class Identifier Superopt Interfacesopt ClassBody

8.1.1 Class Modifiers

ClassModifiers:
	ClassModifier
	ClassModifiers ClassModifier

ClassModifier: one of
	public protected private
	abstract static final strictfp

If two or more class modifiers appear in a class declaration, then it is customary, though not required, that they appear in the order consistent with that shown above in the production for ClassModifier.

8.1.1.1 abstract Classes

• C explicitly contains a declaration of an abstract method (§8.4.3).
• Any of C's superclasses declares an abstract method that has not been implemented (§8.4.6.1) in C or any of its superclasses.
• A direct superinterface (§8.1.4) of C declares or inherits a method (which is therefore necessarily abstract) and C neither declares nor inherits a method that implements it.

abstract class Point {
	int x = 1, y = 1;
	void move(int dx, int dy) {
		x += dx;
		y += dy;
		alert();
	}
	abstract void alert();
}
abstract class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	int color;
}
class SimplePoint extends Point {
	void alert() { }
}

A compile-time error occurs if an attempt is made to create an instance of an abstract class using a class instance creation expression (§15.9).

Thus, continuing the example just shown, the statement:

	Point p = new Point();

	Point p = new SimplePoint();

A subclass of an abstract class that is not itself abstract may be instantiated, resulting in the execution of a constructor for the abstract class and, therefore, the execution of the field initializers for instance variables of that class. Thus, in the example just given, instantiation of a SimplePoint causes the default constructor and field initializers for x and y of Point to be executed. It is a compile-time error to declare an abstract class type such that it is not possible to create a subclass that implements all of its abstract methods. This situation can occur if the class would have as members two abstract methods that have the same method signature (§8.4.2) but different return types.

As an example, the declarations:

interface Colorable { void setColor(int color); }
abstract class Colored implements Colorable {
	abstract int setColor(int color);
}

A class type should be declared abstract only if the intent is that subclasses can be created to complete the implementation. If the intent is simply to prevent instantiation of a class, the proper way to express this is to declare a constructor (§8.8.8) of no arguments, make it private, never invoke it, and declare no other constructors. A class of this form usually contains class methods and variables. The class Math is an example of a class that cannot be instantiated; its declaration looks like this:

public final class Math {
	private Math() { }		// never instantiate this class
	. . . declarations of class variables and methods . . .

}

8.1.1.2 final Classes

Because a final class never has any subclasses, the methods of a final class are never overridden (§8.4.6.1).

8.1.1.3 strictfp Classes

Note also that all float or double expressions within all variable initializers, instance initializers, static initializers and constructors of the class will also be explicitly FP-strict.

8.1.2 Inner Classes and Enclosing Instances

To illustrate these rules, consider the example below:

class HasStatic{
	static int j = 100;
}
class Outer{
	class Inner extends HasStatic{
		static final x = 3;		// ok - compile-time constant
		static int y = 4; 		// compile-time error, an inner class
	}
	static class NestedButNotInner{
		static int z = 5; 		// ok, not an inner class
	}
	interface NeverInner{}		// interfaces are never inner
}

A statement or expression occurs in a static context if and only if the innermost method, constructor, instance initializer, static initializer, field initializer, or explicit constructor statement enclosing the statement or expression is a static method, a static initializer, the variable initializer of a static variable, or an explicit constructor invocation statement (§8.8.5).

An inner class C is a direct inner class of a class O if O is the immediately lexically enclosing class of C and the declaration of C does not occur in a static context. A class C is an inner class of class O if it is either a direct inner class of O or an inner class of an inner class of O.

A class O is the zeroth lexically enclosing class of itself. A class O is the nth lexically enclosing class of a class C if it is the immediately enclosing class of the n - 1st lexically enclosing class of C.

An instance i of a direct inner class C of a class O is associated with an instance of O, known as the immediately enclosing instance of i. The immediately enclosing instance of an object, if any, is determined when the object is created (§15.9.2).

An object o is the zeroth lexically enclosing instance of itself. An object o is the nth lexically enclosing instance of an instance i if it is the immediately enclosing instance of the n - 1st lexically enclosing instance of i.

When an inner class refers to an instance variable that is a member of a lexically enclosing class, the variable of the corresponding lexically enclosing instance is used. A blank final (§4.5.4) field of a lexically enclosing class may not be assigned within an inner class.

An instance of an inner class I whose declaration occurs in a static context has no lexically enclosing instances. However, if I is immediately declared within a static method or static initializer then I does have an enclosing block, which is the innermost block statement lexically enclosing the declaration of I.

Furthermore, for every superclass S of C which is itself a direct inner class of a class SO, there is an instance of SO associated with i, known as the immediately enclosing instance of i with respect to S. The immediately enclosing instance of an object with respect to its class' direct superclass, if any, is determined when the superclass constructor is invoked via an explicit constructor invocation statement.

Any local variable, formal method parameter or exception handler parameter used but not declared in an inner class must be declared final, and must be definitely assigned (§16) before the body of the inner class.

Inner classes include local (§14.3), anonymous (§15.9.5) and non-static member classes (§8.5). Here are some examples:

class Outer {
	int i = 100;
	static void classMethod() {
		final int l = 200;
		class LocalInStaticContext{
			int k = i; // compile-time error
			int m = l; // ok
		}
	}
	void foo() {
		class Local { // a local class
			int j = i;
		}
	}
}

Inner classes whose declarations do not occur in a static context may freely refer to the instance variables of their enclosing class. An instance variable is always defined with respect to an instance. In the case of instance variables of an enclosing class, the instance variable must be defined with respect to an enclosing instance of that class. So, for example, the class Local above has an enclosing instance of class Outer. As a further example:

class WithDeepNesting{
	boolean toBe;
	WithDeepNesting(boolean b) { toBe = b;}
	class Nested {
		boolean theQuestion;
		class DeeplyNested {
			DeeplyNested(){
				theQuestion = toBe || !toBe;
			}
		}
	}
}

8.1.3 Superclasses and Subclasses

Super:
	extends ClassType

ClassType:
	TypeName

In the example:

class Point { int x, y; }
final class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; }
class Colored3DPoint extends ColoredPoint { int z; } // error

• The class Point is a direct subclass of Object.
• The class Object is the direct superclass of the class Point.
• The class ColoredPoint is a direct subclass of class Point.
• The class Point is the direct superclass of class ColoredPoint.

The subclass relationship is the transitive closure of the direct subclass relationship. A class A is a subclass of class C if either of the following is true:

• A is the direct subclass of C.
• There exists a class B such that A is a subclass of B, and B is a subclass of C, applying this definition recursively.

In the example:

class Point { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; }
final class Colored3dPoint extends ColoredPoint { int z; }

• The class Point is a superclass of class ColoredPoint.
• The class Point is a superclass of class Colored3dPoint.
• The class ColoredPoint is a subclass of class Point.
• The class ColoredPoint is a superclass of class Colored3dPoint.
• The class Colored3dPoint is a subclass of class ColoredPoint.
• The class Colored3dPoint is a subclass of class Point.

• C directly depends on T.
• C directly depends on an interface I that depends (§9.1.2) on T.
• C directly depends on a class D that depends on T (using this definition recursively).

For example:

class Point extends ColoredPoint { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; }

If circularly declared classes are detected at run time, as classes are loaded (§12.2), then a ClassCircularityError is thrown.

8.1.4 Superinterfaces

Interfaces:
	implements InterfaceTypeList

InterfaceTypeList:
	InterfaceType
	InterfaceTypeList , InterfaceType

InterfaceType:
	TypeName

A compile-time error occurs if the same interface is mentioned two or more times in a single implements clause.

This is true even if the interface is named in different ways; for example, the code:

class Redundant implements java.lang.Cloneable, Cloneable {
	int x;
}

An interface type I is a superinterface of class type C if any of the following is true:

• I is a direct superinterface of C.
• C has some direct superinterface J for which I is a superinterface, using the definition of "superinterface of an interface" given in §9.1.2.
• I is a superinterface of the direct superclass of C.

In the example:

public interface Colorable {
	void setColor(int color);
	int getColor();
}
public interface Paintable extends Colorable {
	int MATTE = 0, GLOSSY = 1;
	void setFinish(int finish);
	int getFinish();
}
class Point { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point implements Colorable {
	int color;
	public void setColor(int color) { this.color = color; }
	public int getColor() { return color; }
}
class PaintedPoint extends ColoredPoint implements Paintable 
{
	int finish;
	public void setFinish(int finish) {
		this.finish = finish;
	}
	public int getFinish() { return finish; }
}

• The interface Paintable is a superinterface of class PaintedPoint.
• The interface Colorable is a superinterface of class ColoredPoint and of class PaintedPoint.
• The interface Paintable is a subinterface of the interface Colorable, and Colorable is a superinterface of Paintable, as defined in §9.1.2.

Unless the class being declared is abstract, the declarations of all the method members of each direct superinterface must be implemented either by a declaration in this class or by an existing method declaration inherited from the direct superclass, because a class that is not abstract is not permitted to have abstract methods (§8.1.1.1).

Thus, the example:

interface Colorable {
	void setColor(int color);
	int getColor();
}
class Point { int x, y; };
class ColoredPoint extends Point implements Colorable {
	int color;
}

It is permitted for a single method declaration in a class to implement methods of more than one superinterface. For example, in the code:

interface Fish { int getNumberOfScales(); }
interface Piano { int getNumberOfScales(); }
class Tuna implements Fish, Piano {
	// You can tune a piano, but can you tuna fish?
	int getNumberOfScales() { return 91; }
}

On the other hand, in a situation such as this:

interface Fish { int getNumberOfScales(); }
interface StringBass { double getNumberOfScales(); }
class Bass implements Fish, StringBass {
	// This declaration cannot be correct, no matter what type is used.
	public ??? getNumberOfScales() { return 91; }
}

8.1.5 Class Body and Member Declarations

ClassBody:
	{ ClassBodyDeclarationsopt }

ClassBodyDeclarations:
	ClassBodyDeclaration
	ClassBodyDeclarations ClassBodyDeclaration

ClassBodyDeclaration:
	ClassMemberDeclaration
	InstanceInitializer
	StaticInitializer
	ConstructorDeclaration

ClassMemberDeclaration:
	FieldDeclaration
	MethodDeclaration
	ClassDeclaration						
	InterfaceDeclaration
	;			 

If C itself is a nested class, there may be definitions of the same kind (variable, method, or type) for m in enclosing scopes. (The scopes may be blocks, classes, or packages.) In all such cases, the member m declared or inherited in C shadows (§6.3.1) the other definitions of m.

8.2 Class Members

• Members inherited from its direct superclass (§8.1.3), except in class Object, which has no direct superclass
• Members inherited from any direct superinterfaces (§8.1.4)
• Members declared in the body of the class (§8.1.5)

Constructors, static initializers, and instance initializers are not members and therefore are not inherited.

The example:

class Point {
	int x, y;
	private Point() { reset(); }
	Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
	private void reset() { this.x = 0; this.y = 0; }
}
class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	int color;
	void clear() { reset(); }		// error
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		ColoredPoint c = new ColoredPoint(0, 0);	// error
		c.reset();				// error
	}
}

• An error occurs because ColoredPoint has no constructor declared with two integer parameters, as requested by the use in main. This illustrates the fact that ColoredPoint does not inherit the constructors of its superclass Point.
• Another error occurs because ColoredPoint declares no constructors, and therefore a default constructor for it is automatically created (§8.8.7), and this default constructor is equivalent to:

	ColoredPoint() { super(); }

8.2.1 Examples of Inheritance

8.2.1.1 Example: Inheritance with Default Access

package points;
public class Point {
	int x, y;
	public void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}

package points;
public class Point3d extends Point {
	int z;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz) {
		x += dx; y += dy; z += dz;
	}
}

import points.Point3d;
class Point4d extends Point3d {
	int w;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz, int dw) {
		x += dx; y += dy; z += dz; w += dw; // compile-time errors
	}
}

A better way to write the third compilation unit would be:

import points.Point3d;
class Point4d extends Point3d {
	int w;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz, int dw) {
		super.move(dx, dy, dz); w += dw;
	}
}

8.2.1.2 Inheritance with public and protected

package points;
public class Point {
	public int x, y;
	protected int useCount = 0;
	static protected int totalUseCount = 0;
	public void move(int dx, int dy) {
		x += dx; y += dy; useCount++; totalUseCount++;
	}
}

Therefore, this test program, in another package, can be compiled successfully:

class Test extends points.Point {
	public void moveBack(int dx, int dy) {
		x -= dx; y -= dy; useCount++; totalUseCount++;
	}
}

8.2.1.3 Inheritance with private

class Point {
	int x, y;
	void move(int dx, int dy) {
		x += dx; y += dy; totalMoves++;
	}
	private static int totalMoves;
	void printMoves() { System.out.println(totalMoves); }
}
class Point3d extends Point {
	int z;
	void move(int dx, int dy, int dz) {
		super.move(dx, dy); z += dz; totalMoves++;
	}
}

8.2.1.4 Accessing Members of Inaccessible Classes

Consider the compilation unit:

package points;
public class Point {
	public int x, y;
	public void move(int dx, int dy) {
		x += dx; y += dy;
	}
}

package morePoints;
class Point3d extends points.Point {
	public int z;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz) {
		super.move(dx, dy); z += dz;
	}
	public void move(int dx, int dy) {
		move(dx, dy, 0);
	}
}
public class OnePoint {
	public static points.Point getOne() { 
		return new Point3d(); 
	}
}

While the field z of class Point3d is public, it is not possible to access this field from code outside the package morePoints, given only a reference to an instance of class Point3d in a variable p of type Point. This is because the expression p.z is not correct, as p has type Point and class Point has no field named z; also, the expression ((Point3d)p).z is not correct, because the class type Point3d cannot be referred to outside package morePoints.

The declaration of the field z as public is not useless, however. If there were to be, in package morePoints, a public subclass Point4d of the class Point3d:

package morePoints;
public class Point4d extends Point3d {
	public int w;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz, int dw) {
		super.move(dx, dy, dz); w += dw;
	}
}

8.3 Field Declarations

FieldDeclaration:
	FieldModifiersopt Type VariableDeclarators ;

VariableDeclarators:
	VariableDeclarator
	VariableDeclarators , VariableDeclarator

VariableDeclarator:
	VariableDeclaratorId
	VariableDeclaratorId = VariableInitializer

VariableDeclaratorId:
	Identifier
	VariableDeclaratorId [ ]

VariableInitializer:
	Expression
	ArrayInitializer
	

It is a compile-time error for the body of a class declaration to declare two fields with the same name. Methods, types, and fields may have the same name, since they are used in different contexts and are disambiguated by different lookup procedures (§6.5).

If the class declares a field with a certain name, then the declaration of that field is said to hide any and all accessible declarations of fields with the same name in superclasses, and superinterfaces of the class. The field declaration also shadows (§6.3.1) declarations of any accessible fields in enclosing classes or interfaces, and any local variables, formal method parameters, and exception handler parameters with the same name in any enclosing blocks.

If a field declaration hides the declaration of another field, the two fields need not have the same type.

A class inherits from its direct superclass and direct superinterfaces all the non-private fields of the superclass and superinterfaces that are both accessible to code in the class and not hidden by a declaration in the class.

Note that a private field of a superclass might be accessible to a subclass (for example, if both classes are members of the same class). Nevertheless, a private field is never inherited by a subclass.

It is possible for a class to inherit more than one field with the same name (§8.3.3.3). Such a situation does not in itself cause a compile-time error. However, any attempt within the body of the class to refer to any such field by its simple name will result in a compile-time error, because such a reference is ambiguous.

There might be several paths by which the same field declaration might be inherited from an interface. In such a situation, the field is considered to be inherited only once, and it may be referred to by its simple name without ambiguity.

A hidden field can be accessed by using a qualified name (if it is static) or by using a field access expression (§15.11) that contains the keyword super or a cast to a superclass type. See §15.11.2 for discussion and an example.

A value stored in a field of type float is always an element of the float value set (§4.2.3); similarly, a value stored in a field of type double is always an element of the double value set. It is not permitted for a field of type float to contain an element of the float-extended-exponent value set that is not also an element of the float value set, nor for a field of type double to contain an element of the double-extended-exponent value set that is not also an element of the double value set.

8.3.1 Field Modifiers

FieldModifiers:
	FieldModifier
	FieldModifiers FieldModifier

FieldModifier: one of
	public protected private
	static final transient volatile

If two or more (distinct) field modifiers appear in a field declaration, it is customary, though not required, that they appear in the order consistent with that shown above in the production for FieldModifier.

8.3.1.1 static Fields

A field that is not declared static (sometimes called a non-static field) is called an instance variable. Whenever a new instance of a class is created, a new variable associated with that instance is created for every instance variable declared in that class or any of its superclasses. The example program:

class Point {
	int x, y, useCount;
	Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
	final static Point origin = new Point(0, 0);
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Point p = new Point(1,1);
		Point q = new Point(2,2);
		p.x = 3; p.y = 3; p.useCount++; p.origin.useCount++;
		System.out.println("(" + q.x + "," + q.y + ")");
		System.out.println(q.useCount);
		System.out.println(q.origin == Point.origin);
		System.out.println(q.origin.useCount);
	}
}

(2,2)
0
true
1

q.origin==Point.origin

p.origin.useCount++;

8.3.1.2 final Fields

It is a compile-time error if a blank final (§4.5.4) class variable is not definitely assigned (§16.7) by a static initializer (§8.7) of the class in which it is declared.

A blank final instance variable must be definitely assigned (§16.8) at the end of every constructor (§8.8) of the class in which it is declared; otherwise a compile-time error occurs.

8.3.1.3 transient Fields

If an instance of the class Point:

class Point {
	int x, y;
	transient float rho, theta;
}

8.3.1.4 volatile Fields

The Java programming language provides a second mechanism, volatile fields, that is more convenient for some purposes.

A field may be declared volatile, in which case a thread must reconcile its working copy of the field with the master copy every time it accesses the variable. Moreover, operations on the master copies of one or more volatile variables on behalf of a thread are performed by the main memory in exactly the order that the thread requested.

If, in the following example, one thread repeatedly calls the method one (but no more than Integer.MAX_VALUE times in all), and another thread repeatedly calls the method two:

class Test {
	static int i = 0, j = 0;
	static void one() { i++; j++; }
	static void two() {
		System.out.println("i=" + i + " j=" + j);
	}
}

One way to prevent this out-or-order behavior would be to declare methods one and two to be synchronized (§8.4.3.6):

class Test {
	static int i = 0, j = 0;
	static synchronized void one() { i++; j++; }
	static synchronized void two() {
		System.out.println("i=" + i + " j=" + j);
	}
}

Another approach would be to declare i and j to be volatile:

class Test {
	static volatile int i = 0, j = 0;
	static void one() { i++; j++; }
	static void two() {
		System.out.println("i=" + i + " j=" + j);
	}
}

A compile-time error occurs if a final variable is also declared volatile.

8.3.2 Initialization of Fields

• If the declarator is for a class variable (that is, a static field), then the variable initializer is evaluated and the assignment performed exactly once, when the class is initialized (§12.4).
• If the declarator is for an instance variable (that is, a field that is not static), then the variable initializer is evaluated and the assignment performed each time an instance of the class is created (§12.5). The example:

class Point {
	int x = 1, y = 5;
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Point p = new Point();
		System.out.println(p.x + ", " + p.y);
	}
}

1, 5

Variable initializers are also used in local variable declaration statements (§14.4), where the initializer is evaluated and the assignment performed each time the local variable declaration statement is executed.

It is a compile-time error if the evaluation of a variable initializer for a static field or for an instance variable of a named class (or of an interface) can complete abruptly with a checked exception (§11.2).

8.3.2.1 Initializers for Class Variables

If the keyword this (§15.8.3) or the keyword super (§15.11.2, §15.12) occurs in an initialization expression for a class variable, then a compile-time error occurs.

One subtlety here is that, at run time, static variables that are final and that are initialized with compile-time constant values are initialized first. This also applies to such fields in interfaces (§9.3.1). These variables are "constants" that will never be observed to have their default initial values (§4.5.5), even by devious programs. See §12.4.2 and §13.4.8 for more discussion. Use of class variables whose declarations appear textually after the use is sometimes restricted, even though these class variables are in scope. See §8.3.2.3 for the precise rules governing forward reference to class variables.

8.3.2.2 Initializers for Instance Variables

Thus the example:

class Test {
	float f = j;
	static int j = 1;
}

Initialization expressions for instance variables are permitted to refer to the current object this (§15.8.3) and to use the keyword super (§15.11.2, §15.12).

Use of instance variables whose declarations appear textually after the use is sometimes restricted, even though these instance variables are in scope. See §8.3.2.3 for the precise rules governing forward reference to instance variables.

8.3.2.3 Restrictions on the use of Fields during Initialization

• The usage occurs in an instance (respectively static) variable initializer of C or in an instance (respectively static) initializer of C.
• The usage is not on the left hand side of an assignment.
• C is the innermost class or interface enclosing the usage.

This means that a compile-time error results from the test program:

	class Test {
		int i = j;	// compile-time error: incorrect forward reference
		int j = 1;
	}

	class Test {
		Test() { k = 2; }
		int j = 1;
		int i = j;
		int k;
	}

These restrictions are designed to catch, at compile time, circular or otherwise malformed initializations. Thus, both:

class Z {
	static int i = j + 2; 
	static int j = 4;
}

class Z {
	static { i = j + 2; }
	static int i, j;
	static { j = 4; }
}

class Z {
	static int peek() { return j; }
	static int i = peek();
	static int j = 1;
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		System.out.println(Z.i);
	}
}

0

A more elaborate example is:

class UseBeforeDeclaration {
	static {
		x = 100; // ok - assignment
		int y = x + 1; // error - read before declaration
		int v = x = 3; // ok - x at left hand side of assignment
		int z = UseBeforeDeclaration.x * 2;
	// ok - not accessed via simple name
		Object o = new Object(){ 
			void foo(){x++;} // ok - occurs in a different class
			{x++;} // ok - occurs in a different class
    		};
  }
	{
		j = 200; // ok - assignment
		j = j + 1; // error - right hand side reads before declaration
		int k = j = j + 1; 
		int n = j = 300; // ok - j at left hand side of assignment
		int h = j++; // error - read before declaration
		int l = this.j * 3; // ok - not accessed via simple name
		Object o = new Object(){ 
			void foo(){j++;} // ok - occurs in a different class
			{ j = j + 1;} // ok - occurs in a different class
		};
	}
	int w = x= 3; // ok - x at left hand side of assignment
	int p = x; // ok - instance initializers may access static fields
	static int u = (new Object(){int bar(){return x;}}).bar();
	// ok - occurs in a different class
	static int x;
	int m = j = 4; // ok - j at left hand side of assignment
	int o = (new Object(){int bar(){return j;}}).bar(); 
	// ok - occurs in a different class
	int j;
}

8.3.3 Examples of Field Declarations

8.3.3.1 Example: Hiding of Class Variables

class Point {
	static int x = 2;
}
class Test extends Point {
	static double x = 4.7;
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		new Test().printX();
	}
	void printX() {
		System.out.println(x + " " + super.x);
	}
}

4.7 2

class Point {
	static int x = 2;
}
class Test extends Point {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		new Test().printX();
	}
	void printX() {
		System.out.println(x + " " + super.x);
	}
}

2 2

8.3.3.2 Example: Hiding of Instance Variables

class Point {
	int x = 2;
}
class Test extends Point {
	double x = 4.7;
	void printBoth() {
		System.out.println(x + " " + super.x);
	}
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Test sample = new Test();
		sample.printBoth();
		System.out.println(sample.x + " " + 
								((Point)sample).x);
	}
}

4.7 2
4.7 2

Code that uses a field access expression to access field x will access the field named x in the class indicated by the type of reference expression. Thus, the expression sample.x accesses a float value, the instance variable declared in class Test, because the type of the variable sample is Test, but the expression ((Point)sample).x accesses an int value, the instance variable declared in class Point, because of the cast to type Point.

If the declaration of x is deleted from class Test, as in the program:

class Point {
	static int x = 2;
}
class Test extends Point {
	void printBoth() {
		System.out.println(x + " " + super.x);
	}
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Test sample = new Test();
		sample.printBoth();
		System.out.println(sample.x + " " +
												((Point)sample).x);
	}
}

2 2
2 2

8.3.3.3 Example: Multiply Inherited Fields

interface Frob { float v = 2.0f; }
class SuperTest { int v = 3; }
class Test extends SuperTest implements Frob {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		new Test().printV();
	}
	void printV() { System.out.println(v); }
}

The following variation uses the field access expression super.v to refer to the field named v declared in class SuperTest and uses the qualified name Frob.v to refer to the field named v declared in interface Frob:

interface Frob { float v = 2.0f; }
class SuperTest { int v = 3; }
class Test extends SuperTest implements Frob {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		new Test().printV();
	}
	void printV() {
		System.out.println((super.v + Frob.v)/2);
	}
}

2.5

interface Color { int RED=0, GREEN=1, BLUE=2; }
interface TrafficLight { int RED=0, YELLOW=1, GREEN=2; }
class Test implements Color, TrafficLight {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		System.out.println(GREEN);			// compile-time error
		System.out.println(RED);		// compile-time error
	}
}

8.3.3.4 Example: Re-inheritance of Fields

public interface Colorable {
	int RED = 0xff0000, GREEN = 0x00ff00, BLUE = 0x0000ff;
}
public interface Paintable extends Colorable {
	int MATTE = 0, GLOSSY = 1;
}
class Point { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point implements Colorable {
	. . .
}
class PaintedPoint extends ColoredPoint implements Paintable 
{
	. . .       RED       . . .
}

8.4 Method Declarations

MethodDeclaration:
	MethodHeader MethodBody

MethodHeader:
	MethodModifiersopt ResultType MethodDeclarator Throwsopt

ResultType:
	Type
	void

MethodDeclarator:
	Identifer ( FormalParameterListopt )

The Identifier in a MethodDeclarator may be used in a name to refer to the method. A class can declare a method with the same name as the class or a field, member class or member interface of the class.

For compatibility with older versions of the Java platform, a declaration form for a method that returns an array is allowed to place (some or all of) the empty bracket pairs that form the declaration of the array type after the parameter list. This is supported by the obsolescent production:

MethodDeclarator:
	MethodDeclarator [ ]

It is a compile-time error for the body of a class to have as members two methods with the same signature (§8.4.2) (name, number of parameters, and types of any parameters). Methods and fields may have the same name, since they are used in different contexts and are disambiguated by the different lookup procedures (§6.5).

8.4.1 Formal Parameters

FormalParameterList:
	FormalParameter
	FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

FormalParameter:
	finalopt Type VariableDeclaratorId

VariableDeclaratorId:
	Identifier
	VariableDeclaratorId [ ]

If two formal parameters of the same method or constructor are declared to have the same name (that is, their declarations mention the same Identifier), then a compile-time error occurs.

It is a compile-time error if a method or constructor parameter that is declared final is assigned to within the body of the method or constructor.

When the method or constructor is invoked (§15.12), the values of the actual argument expressions initialize newly created parameter variables, each of the declared Type, before execution of the body of the method or constructor. The Identifier that appears in the DeclaratorId may be used as a simple name in the body of the method or constructor to refer to the formal parameter.

The scope of a parameter of a method (§8.4.1) or constructor (§8.8.1) is the entire body of the method or constructor.

These parameter names may not be redeclared as local variables of the method, or as exception parameters of catch clauses in a try statement of the method or constructor. However, a parameter of a method or constructor may be shadowed anywhere inside a class declaration nested within that method or constructor. Such a nested class declaration could declare either a local class (§14.3) or an anonymous class (§15.9).

Formal parameters are referred to only using simple names, never by using qualified names (§6.6).

A method or constructor parameter of type float always contains an element of the float value set (§4.2.3); similarly, a method or constructor parameter of type double always contains an element of the double value set. It is not permitted for a method or constructor parameter of type float to contain an element of the float-extended-exponent value set that is not also an element of the float value set, nor for a method parameter of type double to contain an element of the double-extended-exponent value set that is not also an element of the double value set.

Where an actual argument expression corresponding to a parameter variable is not FP-strict (§15.4), evaluation of that actual argument expression is permitted to use intermediate values drawn from the appropriate extended-exponent value sets. Prior to being stored in the parameter variable the result of such an expression is mapped to the nearest value in the corresponding standard value set by method invocation conversion (§5.3).

8.4.2 Method Signature

The example:

class Point implements Move {
	int x, y;
	abstract void move(int dx, int dy);
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}

8.4.3 Method Modifiers

MethodModifiers:
	MethodModifier
	MethodModifiers MethodModifier

MethodModifier: one of
	public protected private abstract static
	final synchronized native strictfp

If two or more method modifiers appear in a method declaration, it is customary, though not required, that they appear in the order consistent with that shown above in the production for MethodModifier.

8.4.3.1 abstract Methods

It is a compile-time error for a private method to be declared abstract.

It would be impossible for a subclass to implement a private abstract method, because private methods are not inherited by subclasses; therefore such a method could never be used.

It is a compile-time error for a static method to be declared abstract.

It is a compile-time error for a final method to be declared abstract.

An abstract class can override an abstract method by providing another abstract method declaration.

This can provide a place to put a documentation comment, or to declare that the set of checked exceptions (§11.2) that can be thrown by that method, when it is implemented by its subclasses, is to be more limited. For example, consider this code:

class BufferEmpty extends Exception {
	BufferEmpty() { super(); }
	BufferEmpty(String s) { super(s); }
}
class BufferError extends Exception {
	BufferError() { super(); }
	BufferError(String s) { super(s); }
}
public interface Buffer {
	char get() throws BufferEmpty, BufferError;
}
public abstract class InfiniteBuffer implements Buffer {
	abstract char get() throws BufferError;
}

For example, we can declare an abstract class Point that requires its subclasses to implement toString if they are to be complete, instantiable classes:

abstract class Point {
	int x, y;
	public abstract String toString();
}

class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	int color;
	public String toString() {
		return super.toString() + ": color " + color; // error
	}
}

abstract class Point {
	int x, y;
	public abstract String toString();
	protected String objString() { return super.toString(); }
}
class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	int color;
	public String toString() {
		return objString() + ": color " + color;	// correct
	}
}

8.4.3.2 static Methods

A method that is not declared static is called an instance method, and sometimes called a non-static method. An instance method is always invoked with respect to an object, which becomes the current object to which the keywords this and super refer during execution of the method body.

8.4.3.3 final Methods

A private method and all methods declared in a final class (§8.1.1.2) are implicitly final, because it is impossible to override them. It is permitted but not required for the declarations of such methods to redundantly include the final keyword.

It is a compile-time error for a final method to be declared abstract.

At run time, a machine-code generator or optimizer can "inline" the body of a final method, replacing an invocation of the method with the code in its body. The inlining process must preserve the semantics of the method invocation. In particular, if the target of an instance method invocation is null, then a NullPointerException must be thrown even if the method is inlined. The compiler must ensure that the exception will be thrown at the correct point, so that the actual arguments to the method will be seen to have been evaluated in the correct order prior to the method invocation.

Consider the example:

final class Point {
	int x, y;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}
class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		Point[] p = new Point[100];
		for (int i = 0; i < p.length; i++) {
			p[i] = new Point();
			p[i].move(i, p.length-1-i);
		}
	}
}

		for (int i = 0; i < p.length; i++) {
			p[i] = new Point();
			Point pi = p[i];
			int j = p.length-1-i;
			pi.x += i;
			pi.y += j;
		}

Such inlining cannot be done at compile time unless it can be guaranteed that Test and Point will always be recompiled together, so that whenever Point-and specifically its move method-changes, the code for Test.main will also be updated.

8.4.3.4 native Methods

A compile-time error occurs if a native method is declared abstract.

For example, the class RandomAccessFile of the package java.io might declare the following native methods:

package java.io;
public class RandomAccessFile
	implements DataOutput, DataInput
{	. . .
	public native void open(String name, boolean writeable)
		throws IOException;
	public native int readBytes(byte[] b, int off, int len)
		throws IOException;
	public native void writeBytes(byte[] b, int off, int len)
		throws IOException;
	public native long getFilePointer() throws IOException;
	public native void seek(long pos) throws IOException;
	public native long length() throws IOException;
	public native void close() throws IOException;
}

8.4.3.5 strictfp Methods

8.4.3.6 synchronized Methods

These are the same locks that can be used by the synchronized statement (§14.18); thus, the code:

class Test {
	int count;
	synchronized void bump() { count++; }
	static int classCount;
	static synchronized void classBump() {
		classCount++;
	}
}

class BumpTest {
	int count;
	void bump() {
		synchronized (this) {
			count++;
		}
	}
	static int classCount;
	static void classBump() {
		try {
			synchronized (Class.forName("BumpTest")) {
				classCount++;
			}
		} catch (ClassNotFoundException e) {
				...
		}
	}
}

public class Box {
	private Object boxContents;
	public synchronized Object get() {
		Object contents = boxContents;
		boxContents = null;
		return contents;
	}
	public synchronized boolean put(Object contents) {
		if (boxContents != null)
			return false;
		boxContents = contents;
		return true;
	}
}

If put and get were not synchronized, and two threads were executing methods for the same instance of Box at the same time, then the code could misbehave. It might, for example, lose track of an object because two invocations to put occurred at the same time.

See §17 for more discussion of threads and locks.

8.4.4 Method Throws

Throws:
	throws ClassTypeList

ClassTypeList:
	ClassType
	ClassTypeList , ClassType

For each checked exception that can result from execution of the body of a method or constructor, a compile-time error occurs unless that exception type or a superclass of that exception type is mentioned in a throws clause in the declaration of the method or constructor.

The requirement to declare checked exceptions allows the compiler to ensure that code for handling such error conditions has been included. Methods or constructors that fail to handle exceptional conditions thrown as checked exceptions will normally result in a compile-time error because of the lack of a proper exception type in a throws clause. The Java programming language thus encourages a programming style where rare and otherwise truly exceptional conditions are documented in this way.

The predefined exceptions that are not checked in this way are those for which declaring every possible occurrence would be unimaginably inconvenient:

• Exceptions that are represented by the subclasses of class Error, for example OutOfMemoryError, are thrown due to a failure in or of the virtual machine. Many of these are the result of linkage failures and can occur at unpredictable points in the execution of a program. Sophisticated programs may yet wish to catch and attempt to recover from some of these conditions.
• The exceptions that are represented by the subclasses of the class RuntimeException, for example NullPointerException, result from run-time integrity checks and are thrown either directly from the program or in library routines. It is beyond the scope of the Java programming language, and perhaps beyond the state of the art, to include sufficient information in the program to reduce to a manageable number the places where these can be proven not to occur.

More precisely, suppose that B is a class or interface, and A is a superclass or superinterface of B, and a method declaration n in B overrides or hides a method declaration m in A. If n has a throws clause that mentions any checked exception types, then m must have a throws clause, and for every checked exception type listed in the throws clause of n, that same exception class or one of its superclasses must occur in the throws clause of m; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.

See §11 for more information about exceptions and a large example.

8.4.5 Method Body

MethodBody:
	Block 
	;

If an implementation is to be provided for a method but the implementation requires no executable code, the method body should be written as a block that contains no statements: "{ }".

If a method is declared void, then its body must not contain any return statement (§14.16) that has an Expression.

If a method is declared to have a return type, then every return statement (§14.16) in its body must have an Expression. A compile-time error occurs if the body of the method can complete normally (§14.1).

In other words, a method with a return type must return only by using a return statement that provides a value return; it is not allowed to "drop off the end of its body."

Note that it is possible for a method to have a declared return type and yet contain no return statements. Here is one example:

class DizzyDean {
	int pitch() { throw new RuntimeException("90 mph?!"); }
}

8.4.6 Inheritance, Overriding, and Hiding

8.4.6.1 Overriding (by Instance Methods)

1. C is a subclass of A.
2. Either
   • m2 is non-private and accessible from C, or
   • m1 overrides a method m3, m3 distinct from m1, m3 distinct from m2, such that m3 overrides m2.

A compile-time error occurs if an instance method overrides a static method.

In this respect, overriding of methods differs from hiding of fields (§8.3), for it is permissible for an instance variable to hide a static variable.

An overridden method can be accessed by using a method invocation expression (§15.12) that contains the keyword super. Note that a qualified name or a cast to a superclass type is not effective in attempting to access an overridden method; in this respect, overriding of methods differs from hiding of fields. See §15.12.4.9 for discussion and examples of this point.

The presence or absence of the strictfp modifier has absolutely no effect on the rules for overriding methods and implementing abstract methods. For example, it is permitted for a method that is not FP-strict to override an FP-strict method and it is permitted for an FP-strict method to override a method that is not FP-strict.

8.4.6.2 Hiding (by Class Methods)

In this respect, hiding of methods differs from hiding of fields (§8.3), for it is permissible for a static variable to hide an instance variable. Hiding is also distinct from shadowing (§6.3.1) and obscuring (§6.3.2).

A hidden method can be accessed by using a qualified name or by using a method invocation expression (§15.12) that contains the keyword super or a cast to a superclass type. In this respect, hiding of methods is similar to hiding of fields.

8.4.6.3 Requirements in Overriding and Hiding

In these respects, overriding of methods differs from hiding of fields (§8.3), for it is permissible for a field to hide a field of another type.

The access modifier (§6.6) of an overriding or hiding method must provide at least as much access as the overridden or hidden method, or a compile-time error occurs. In more detail:

• If the overridden or hidden method is public, then the overriding or hiding method must be public; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.
• If the overridden or hidden method is protected, then the overriding or hiding method must be protected or public; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.
• If the overridden or hidden method has default (package) access, then the overriding or hiding method must not be private; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.

8.4.6.4 Inheriting Methods with the Same Signature

• If one of the inherited methods is not abstract, then there are two subcases:
  • If the method that is not abstract is static, a compile-time error occurs.
  • Otherwise, the method that is not abstract is considered to override, and therefore to implement, all the other methods on behalf of the class that inherits it. A compile-time error occurs if, comparing the method that is not abstract with each of the other of the inherited methods, for any such pair, either they have different return types or one has a return type and the other is void. Moreover, a compile-time error occurs if the inherited method that is not abstract has a throws clause that conflicts (§8.4.4) with that of any other of the inherited methods.
• If all the inherited methods are abstract, then the class is necessarily an abstract class and is considered to inherit all the abstract methods. A compile-time error occurs if, for any two such inherited methods, either they have different return types or one has a return type and the other is void. (The throws clauses do not cause errors in this case.)

There might be several paths by which the same method declaration might be inherited from an interface. This fact causes no difficulty and never, of itself, results in a compile-time error.

8.4.7 Overloading

Methods are overridden on a signature-by-signature basis.

If, for example, a class declares two public methods with the same name, and a subclass overrides one of them, the subclass still inherits the other method. In this respect, the Java programming language differs from C++.

When a method is invoked (§15.12), the number of actual arguments and the compile-time types of the arguments are used, at compile time, to determine the signature of the method that will be invoked (§15.12.2). If the method that is to be invoked is an instance method, the actual method to be invoked will be determined at run time, using dynamic method lookup (§15.12.4).

8.4.8 Examples of Method Declarations

8.4.8.1 Example: Overriding

class Point {
	int x = 0, y = 0;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}
class SlowPoint extends Point {
	int xLimit, yLimit;
	void move(int dx, int dy) {
		super.move(limit(dx, xLimit), limit(dy, yLimit));
	}
	static int limit(int d, int limit) {
		return d > limit ? limit : d < -limit ? -limit : d;
	}
}

8.4.8.2 Example: Overloading, Overriding, and Hiding

class Point {
	int x = 0, y = 0;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
	int color;
}
class RealPoint extends Point {
	float x = 0.0f, y = 0.0f;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { move((float)dx, (float)dy); }
	void move(float dx, float dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}

In this example, the members of the class RealPoint include the instance variable color inherited from the class Point, the float instance variables x and y declared in RealPoint, and the two move methods declared in RealPoint.

Which of these overloaded move methods of class RealPoint will be chosen for any particular method invocation will be determined at compile time by the overloading resolution procedure described in §15.12.

8.4.8.3 Example: Incorrect Overriding

class Point {
	int x = 0, y = 0, color;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
	int getX() { return x; }
	int getY() { return y; }
}
class RealPoint extends Point {
	float x = 0.0f, y = 0.0f;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { move((float)dx, (float)dy); }
	void move(float dx, float dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
	float getX() { return x; }
	float getY() { return y; }
}

8.4.8.4 Example: Overriding versus Hiding

class Point {
	int x = 0, y = 0;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
	int getX() { return x; }
	int getY() { return y; }
	int color;
}
class RealPoint extends Point {
	float x = 0.0f, y = 0.0f;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { move((float)dx, (float)dy); }
	void move(float dx, float dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
	int getX() { return (int)Math.floor(x); }
	int getY() { return (int)Math.floor(y); }
}

Consider, then, this test program:

class Test {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		RealPoint rp = new RealPoint();
		Point p = rp;
		rp.move(1.71828f, 4.14159f);
		p.move(1, -1);
		show(p.x, p.y);
		show(rp.x, rp.y);
		show(p.getX(), p.getY());
		show(rp.getX(), rp.getY());
	}
	static void show(int x, int y) {
		System.out.println("(" + x + ", " + y + ")");
	}
	static void show(float x, float y) {
		System.out.println("(" + x + ", " + y + ")");
	}
}

(0, 0)
(2.7182798, 3.14159)
(2, 3)
(2, 3)

The second line of output shows that the field access rp.x refers to the field x declared in class RealPoint. This field is of type float, and this second line of output accordingly displays floating-point values. Incidentally, this also illustrates the fact that the method name show is overloaded; the types of the arguments in the method invocation dictate which of the two definitions will be invoked.

The last two lines of output show that the method invocations p.getX() and rp.getX() each invoke the getX method declared in class RealPoint. Indeed, there is no way to invoke the getX method of class Point for an instance of class RealPoint from outside the body of RealPoint, no matter what the type of the variable we may use to hold the reference to the object. Thus, we see that fields and methods behave differently: hiding is different from overriding.

8.4.8.5 Example: Invocation of Hidden Class Methods

class Super {
	static String greeting() { return "Goodnight"; }
	String name() { return "Richard"; }
}
class